Altius Whitepaper

1. Abstract

Altius introduces a VM-agnostic Execution Framework that optimizes blockchain execution through a modular design. Its three-module architecture enables high-performance execution, multi-chain interoperability, and improved scalability.

The Altius Stack decouples blockchain execution layers from single binary implementations and network design, enabling seamless integration with any Layer 1s, Layer 2s, and application-specific chains for instant performance boosts and enhanced interoperability. The architecture aims to achieve Web2 parity for on-chain use cases in a multi-chain future, ensuring onboarded chains are futureproofed for performance.

2. Introduction

Problem Statement

Blockchain systems today face significant challenges, including network congestion, high transaction costs, and limited scalability for opinionated use cases—even as generalized blockspace continues to expand. These limitations stem from monolithic execution layers and insufficient interoperability, which put networks at risk of becoming obsolete without scalability solutions like parallel execution.

While parallel processing is a well-researched and readily available solution for scaling, many chains lack the resources to develop their own systems. Altius offers a turnkey modular execution layer to bridge this gap, enabling chains to scale efficiently and futureproof their infrastructure without additional development work

Vision

Altius’ mission is to enhance blockchain scalability and interoperability at the execution layer, enabling applications and ecosystems to achieve their full potential. Altius aims to empower multi-chain ecosystems with shared execution infrastructure focused on:

• Efficient scaling solutions with continuous upgrades that maintain optimal performance
• Cross-chain interoperability
• Developer incentives for building applications designed for multi-threaded, parallel processing environments

Scope

This paper covers Altius' architecture, implementation, and development roadmap. 

3. Technical Architecture

Altius's technical architecture uses three core pillars to optimize blockchain execution:

1. Parallel Scalable Storage: Enables concurrent operations and efficient state updates across nodes.
2. Instruction-level Parallelism: Uses Static Single Assignment (SSA) to identify and re-execute conflicting instructions independently.
3. Application Code Assessor: Rewards developers for creating optimized smart contracts in execution environments.

Together, these pillars enhance scalability, efficiency, and interoperability in blockchain execution.

Parallel Scalable Storage

State management is crucial for blockchain performance, as each transaction updates the system state. Traditional systems using Merkle-Patricia tries on SSDs face latency and I/O bottlenecks, which worsen as blockchain activity grows. Parallel Scalable Storage offers a new approach to state data management.

Altius's Parallel Scalable Storage solution uses sharded state management, distributed caching, and advanced data structures to achieve high performance with low latency. This article explores its key features and benefits.

Core Principles of Parallel Scalable Storage

The system partitions state data into independently managed shards across distributed nodes, enabling parallel operations. Shards are distributed by key prefixes for balanced workloads. The Scalable State Merkle Trie (SSMT) implements this by assigning specific prefix ranges (e.g., 0x00-0x10) to different nodes.

To minimize latency, distributed caching keeps frequently accessed data in memory, using prefetching and historical patterns. The SSMT optimizes state management through efficient query handling and workload balancing algorithms, preventing performance bottlenecks.

Architectural Innovations

Parallel Scalable Storage features innovative dynamic load balancing for even shard distribution, concurrency-optimized algorithms for parallel processing, memory-first design for faster access, and fault tolerance for reliability.

SSMT Evaluation and Benchmarks

We evaluated SSMT's performance using the Ethereum mainnet dataset, comparing transactions-per-second (TPS) and gas-per-second (GPS) metrics of Altius's execution engine with Deterministic OCC and SSMT. Testing on a 32-core 128GB server with 100GB high-performance SSD showed 50% reduced I/O overhead and 1.2-1.5x performance improvement for large datasets.

SSMT integration increased average GPS to ~657M, achieving 1.8x improvement over Deterministic OCC alone and 30x over regular GPS on Ethereum mainnet.

Combined with SSMT, the average TPS increased to ~6635, which is 1.6x of TPS offered by Deterministic OCC alone and 25x of the regular TPS, based on the Ethereum mainnet data.

Parallel Scalable Storage uses distributed memory-first storage, unlike traditional disk-based blockchain systems. While other high-performance designs rely on expensive high-capacity servers, Altius achieves better efficiency through caching, sharding, and load balancing on standard hardware. Instead of centralized SSD-based storage that causes I/O bottlenecks, our system distributes shards with in-memory caching for faster access.

More importantly, beyond reducing hardware costs, Altius is future-proving—it scales efficiently with distributed storage, while other high-performance designs rely on single-machine storage that limits scalability as demand grows.

Conclusion

Parallel Scalable Storage represents a paradigm shift in blockchain state management. By combining sharded architecture, distributed caching, and optimized data structures such as the Scalable State Merkle Trie (SSMT), it overcomes the limitations of traditional systems, offering unparalleled throughput, scalability, and cost efficiency. As blockchain networks evolve, the adoption of such advanced solutions will be essential to meet the demands of a growing decentralized ecosystem.

Instruction-level Parallelism

Traditional blockchain systems use sequential transaction execution, creating bottlenecks at scale due to complete transaction re-execution during conflicts.

Altius's Instruction-Level Parallelism (ILP) processes individual instructions concurrently, reducing conflicts and improving performance by identifying dependencies between granular instructions.

Core Principles of Instruction-Level Parallelism

Static Single Assignment (SSA) transforms smart contract bytecode to track instruction dependencies, enabling concurrent execution. Key principles:

• Granular Execution: Process independent instructions simultaneously
• Dependency Graph Analysis: Manage instruction relationships for optimal sequencing
• Conflict Minimization: Reduce re-execution needs through instruction-level tracking

Key ILP optimizations include:

• SSA Transformation: Converts bytecode to track dependencies efficiently
• Dynamic Scheduling: Parallel processing based on dependencies
• Incremental Execution: Continuous progress despite conflicts

ILP enhances throughput, reduces latency, and maximizes resource usage while providing developers with optimization tools.

SSA Evaluation and Benchmarks

SSA Evaluation uses dependency graphs to identify conflict-causing instructions during execution. Performance is measured by comparing critical path length to original Gas consumption, determining SSA efficiency gains.

Altius achieves 75% gas cost reduction through selective instruction re-execution.

Conclusion

Instruction-Level Parallelism transforms blockchain execution through concurrent processing and enhanced efficiency. Using advanced techniques like SSA and Deterministic OCC, ILP improves transaction processing beyond sequential limitations. This innovation will help blockchain networks scale effectively, offering better performance and user experience.

Application Code Assessor

The Application Code Assessor module incentivizes developers to create smart contracts that maximize parallel execution potential.

Deterministic Optimistic Concurrency Control (OCC)

Altius's Deterministic OCC sorts transactions by assuming parallel execution. When state conflicts occur, transactions are deterministically aborted and re-executed, identifying conflicts while preserving gas efficiency for operations after the conflict point.

During conflicts, the later transaction aborts and re-executes from the conflict point. Multiple aborts waste gas and indicate reduced parallelism.

Evaluation Framework

Altius implements an evaluation framework to analyze smart contract performance and encourage parallel execution. It measures transaction efficiency and rewards high parallelism.

The system evaluates contracts periodically, analyzing transaction dependencies and calculating efficient gas ratios.

Smart contract parallel execution suitability is evaluated by:

• Transaction Parallel Degree: Higher throughput indicates better parallelism
• Total Gas Amount: Higher gas consumption indicates better contract utilization

Contract data is captured at period end for reward calculations.

Deterministic OCC Evaluation and Benchmarks

We tested Deterministic OCC's speedups, TPS, and GPS across thread counts using conflict-free data and Ethereum mainnet measurements.

Deterministic OCC's main contribution is Altius' Application Code Assessor, which incentivizes reduced transaction conflicts for better performance.

Using a 32-thread server, non-conflicted transactions achieve ~400x speedup over sequential execution.

GPS lifts significantly by adding thread counts, reaching ~70 with a 32-thread domestic server based on non-conflicted transactions.

TPS lifts significantly by adding thread counts, reaching ~2M with a 32-thread domestic server based on non-conflicted transactions.

Deterministic OCC guarantees an average ～7x speedup based on the Ethereum mainnet data.

Deterministic OCC guarantees an average Gas-Per-Second (GPS) of ~374M, which is 16x of the regular GPS, based on the Ethereum mainnet data.

Deterministic OCC guarantees an average Transaction-Per-Second (TPS) of ~4190, which is 15x of the regular TPS, based on the Ethereum mainnet data.

Conclusion

The Application Code Assessor (ACA) is designed to further enhance overall execution performance by encouraging application developers to write more efficient code. It offers tools and protocol-level evaluations that help smart contract developers create applications optimized for a multi-threaded, parallel processing execution environment.

4. Implementation

The Altius Stack is our implementation of the VM-agnostic Modular Execution Framework and utilizes parallel execution and advanced state management to solve core blockchain inefficiencies.

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By separating execution from consensus and leveraging modular data availability layer, the Altius Stack creates a more flexible and resilient blockchain architecture than traditional solutions like Cosmos SDK or Geth.

Altius Execution Core

The Altius Execution Core powers the Altius Stack through its Parallel Execution Engine and Scalable Data Cache, enabling fast transactions and state management in concurrent operations.

Parallel Execution Engine

The Parallel Processing Engine is the core component of the Altius Stack, enabling parallelism transactions for higher throughput and lower latency. It leverages modern hardware to handle increasing workloads efficiently.

The engine has three key components:

• Deterministic OCC (Optimistic Concurrency Control with Deterministic Aborts): Enables parallel transaction execution with consistent conflict resolution.
• SSA (Static Single Assignment): Tracks instruction dependencies to minimize re-execution overhead.
• SSMT (Scalable State Merkle Trie): Manages state data using a sharded Merkle tree structure. Data is distributed across nodes by key prefixes, with workload balancing for optimal performance.

Parallel Processing Capabilities for Layer 1s and Layer 2s

The Altius Stack enables parallel processing in both L1 and L2 through lightweight modifications and customizable solutions.

L1 Integration

Altius Core integrates with L1 in two ways:

• L1 Without Decoupling Consensus and Execution: The L1 proposer outputs executed blocks. Altius Core helps generate these blocks efficiently through parallel execution, removing performance bottlenecks. Examples: Ethereum 1.0 and most of the older L1 designs.
• L1 with Decoupled Consensus and Execution: The consensus layer proposer outputs unexecuted blocks, which execution nodes then process. Altius Core enables parallel execution of these blocks for higher throughput. Examples: Ethereum 2.0, some cosmos-based chains such as Berachain.

For decoupled architectures, Altius Core's deterministic parallel execution ensures consistent results across all nodes, maintaining L1's distributed consistency.

L2 Integration

• Customizable Settlement Layer: Choose between Ethereum Settlement, Sovereign Settlement, or custom options.
• Customizable Data Availability Layer: Select from existing data availability providers such as Celestia DA, Eigen DA, or custom solutions.

5. Open Execution Network: Scalable, Permissionless Parallel Execution

Shared Execution System

Altius introduces a shared execution system designed to address the growing demand for scalable, high-performance transaction processing across diverse blockchain ecosystems. The core of this system is the ability to provide parallel transaction execution to any chain—whether Layer 1s or Layer 2s—on a pay-for-use basis. By offering execution as a service, Altius enables chains to offload transaction processing, thereby increasing throughput and reducing costs. This initial phase will focus on providing robust, cost-efficient execution services for chains that wish to scale their transaction processing capabilities.

Open Execution Network

While the shared execution model allows Altius to serve as a centralized provider of parallel execution infrastructure, the transition to an Open Execution Network (OEN) marks a key milestone in decentralizing execution and enabling seamless participation from any entity in the blockchain ecosystem.

The Open Execution Network aims to provide an open-access platform where any participant, whether it be a Layer 1, Layer 2, or an application-specific chain, can leverage parallel execution capabilities without requiring permission or centralized coordination. By moving from a shared execution service to a fully decentralized, permissionless model, Altius is positioning itself to support an ecosystem of distributed execution resources that can be tapped by anyone, anywhere with:

• Decentralized Execution Infrastructure: In the Open Execution Network, execution rights are no longer controlled by a central provider. Instead, multiple independent participants (referred to as Executors) will be able to contribute computational resources to execute transactions, smart contracts, and other operations across any chain. Executors will stake both Altius' native tokens and the native tokens of target chains to compete for execution tasks. This dual staking model ensures a strong alignment of incentives between the Executors and the chains they serve, ensuring network integrity and reliability.
• Security and Accountability: To protect the integrity of the execution process and prevent malicious behaviour, Altius will incorporate an incentive and penalty structure based on dual staking and slashing. Executors who fail to perform their duties honestly—whether by manipulating results, providing incorrect execution, or neglecting their responsibilities—will face slashing of their staked tokens. This mechanism incentivizes high-quality execution, while also providing a deterrent to potential malicious actors within the network. 
• Permissionless Participation: The OEN is designed to support permissionless participation, meaning anyone with the necessary resources (computational power and staked assets) can join the network and begin offering execution services. There will be no central authority gatekeeping access, allowing for the inclusion of a diverse set of participants. This open-access model fosters a more decentralized, resilient, and scalable ecosystem for blockchain transaction execution.

Network Benefits

The Open Execution Network presents a significant advancement over traditional execution models by offering:

• Scalability: By enabling parallel execution and decentralizing execution resources, the OEN allows for much higher throughput across the blockchain ecosystem. Executors from all parts of the globe can contribute their computational resources to scale the system dynamically based on demand.
• Efficiency: The decentralized, permissionless nature of the OEN lowers costs for developers and dApp users by providing access to shared computational resources, preventing the monopolization of execution services by a single provider. The OEN offers a more cost-effective solution than traditional centralized services, aligning with Altius' goal of improving resource efficiency.
• Resilience: The decentralization of execution providers reduces the risk of single points of failure, ensuring that the execution network is resilient to failures, attacks, or malfeasance by any one participant.
• Cross-chain Interoperability: Executors in the Open Execution Network can interoperate tokens from various chains (Ethereum, Ethereum L2s, altVM chains etc.), allowing seamless execution of cross-chain operations. This enables more efficient interoperability between diverse blockchain ecosystems, enhancing the multichain future that Altius aims to support.

6. Roadmap

Altius is set to become the leading solution to enhance blockchain scalability and interoperability at the execution layer via the Altius Stack. The roadmap highlights key milestones in expanding Altius’ capabilities across blockchain ecosystems in a multi-chain future.

Timeline:

• Altius Execution Engine Core supporting EVM L1/L2 Integration by Q1 2025
• Expand compatibility to multiple VMs by Q2 2025
• Shared Execution Layer Launch by Q4 2025
• Open Execution Network (OEN) Transition by Q4 2026

The Altius Stack 

By decoupling execution from the network design, the Altius Stack allows seamless integration with L1s, L2s, and application-specific chains, enhancing interoperability across various blockchain solutions. This modular approach supports diverse VM environments, from EVM to MoveVM, CosmWasm, and more, and further provides developers with templates for building optimized applications on top of any chain.

Altius Stack's flexibility makes it compatible with both existing and newly developed chains, enabling easy upgrades and configurations for blockchain ecosystems.

Shared Execution Layer

Altius will horizontally integrate the network utilizing the Altius Stack into a Shared Execution Layer, providing an execution infrastructure that enhances parallel processing across multiple chains. This solution will offer optimized execution resources via dynamic balancing, enabling developers to improve scalability and reduce latency for decentralized applications (dApps) and smart contracts. The Shared Execution Layer will serve as a foundation for broader use cases, facilitating cross-chain operations with improved throughput and efficiency.

Decentralize Further with the Open Executor Network
Altius plans to transition to a fully decentralized execution model with the Open Execution Network (OEN). This shift will allow any participant, whether chains, applications, or decentralized entities, to contribute computational resources and execute transactions across any blockchain. Executors will stake both Altius’ token and the native tokens of the chains they serve, aligning incentives and ensuring the network's reliability. This transition will eliminate centralized points of failure and create a permissionless, resilient, and scalable execution ecosystem, enhancing cross-chain interoperability and supporting the multi-chain future of blockchain technology.

7. Conclusion

Altius is creating VM-agnostic, high-performance execution layers compatible with any chains to futureproof blockchain infrastructure. Altius aims to set new standards for blockchain scalability, while enabling seamless cross-chain connectivity. With Altius, blockchain ecosystems will have continuous access to industry-leading execution performance, so they can focus on building what matters. 

Altius Execution Core combines SSMT, SSA, and Deterministic OCC technologies to process transactions in parallel and supports multiple virtual machines. Its modular design enhances system resilience while reducing centralization. Altius also introduces a new rewards model to further improve execution performance by incentivizing application developers to write smart contracts that are optimized for parallel execution environments.  

The architecture aims to unlock scalability and interoperability in a multi-chain future. Altius is more than an infrastructure provider—it’s laying the foundation for a future where blockchains operate at Web2 efficiency while maintaining the principles of decentralization. 

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References

• RainBlock: Faster Transaction Processing in Public Blockchains: https://www.usenix.org/conference/atc21/presentation/ponnapalli
• Utilizing Parallelism in Smart Contracts on Decentralized Blockchains by Taming Application-Inherent Conflicts: https://arxiv.org/pdf/2201.03749
• A Decentralized Blockchain with High Throughput and Fast Confirmation：https://www.usenix.org/system/files/atc20-li-chenxing.pdf
• Operation-level Concurrent Transaction Execution for Blockchains：https://arxiv.org/pdf/2211.07911

Glossary 

• Static Single Assignment (SSA): A compiler optimization technique ensuring each variable is assigned only once. In Altius, SSA enables instruction-level parallelism (ILP) by tracking dependencies and reducing redundant re-execution.
• Deterministic Optimistic Concurrency Control (Deterministic OCC): A parallel execution model where transactions initially assume no conflicts. If conflicts arise, affected transactions are deterministically aborted and selectively re-executed, minimizing gas wastage and maximizing throughput.
• Scalable State Merkle Trie (SSMT): A distributed state storage structure that partitions data across nodes using sharded prefixes. SSMT enhances query efficiency, load balancing, and state synchronization, significantly reducing I/O overhead and improving execution speed.